Contents
The aim of
guidance and counselling are to help the individual. It can be done by
understanding him. We cannot understand a person unless we know him.
Therefore, the first thing guidance workers must do is to get to know the
individual. If he has reliable, accurate, significant, and comprehensive
information regarding the individual, he can understand him better and guide
him effectively. The better the exploration of the individual, the more
effective the guidance, and complete exploration of the individual may be
achieved by various testing and non-testing devices.
the main function
of tests is to collect reliable data about the individual for making decisions
about his educational, vocational or personal plan in his life.
It is a set of
tasks or questions intended to elicit types of behaviour when presented under
standardized conditions. This means that testing is the act of asking an
individual a set of questions to obtain a score. The score thus obtained is the
end-product of testing, and yields information needed when deciding.
using scores from
a test, a counsellor can form an image or model of the client with whom he/she
deals. The image thus formed is a set of hypotheses about a person and his/her
potential.
Psychological tests are designed to assess the
characteristics of people such as their abilities, attitudes, motivations,
interests, needs and values and so on. The psychological test can be defined as a
sample of an individual, behaviour, obtaining under standard conditions and
scored according to a fixed set of rules that provide a numeric score
(Anastasi, 2003).
Freeman writes, “A psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to
measure objectively one or more aspects of a total personality by means of
samples of verbal or non-verbal response, or by means of other behaviour.”
It is obvious that
a psychological test is the quantitative measurement of the various aspects of behaviour
of the individual for making generalized statements about the total performance
and behaviour.
A good
the psychological test must possess the following essential characteristics: –
Ø
Validity
Ø
Reliability
Ø
Simplicity
Ø
Economy
Ø
Interesting
The counsellor may
use the tests to:
- Secure accurate and reliable information about each student’s
abilities, interests and adjustment problems in order to give him guidance
and counselling
- Make use of test results for further performance through
the improved basis for prediction regarding the likelihood of success in
activities for which prospective performance can be measured
- Help students arrive at decisions basic to plan their
educational and vocational future
- Diagnose student’s problems like social adjustment, growth and
development or academic deficiencies and determining plans for their
amelioration; and
- Help them evaluate the outcome of guidance and counselling and
plan further remedial programme.
The testing
service has specific purposes and aims which it wants to achieve by using
standardized tests. A few of the main purposes are enumerated below: -
1. To determine the individual pupil’s
achievement level and progress
2. To obtain data for diagnostic purposes
3. To know his aptitudes
4. To provide for the identification
5. To improve instruction
6. To determine his existing self-concept,
attitudes, and the personality pattern
7. To ascertain social adjustment
8. To identify under-achievers and
over-achievers
The psychological
characteristics that an individual possesses may be divided into five broad
categories, each one of which is measurable by a test or a set of tests. We
have thus to use these five types of test.
(1) Tests of Intelligence
(2) Test of abilities
(3) Tests of interests
(4) Tests of personality, and
(5) Tests of achievement
Counselling and Guidance
Tests are
frequently used to assist students in exploring and choosing careers and
directing them to prepare for the careers they select. A single test is not
used for making guidance and counselling decisions. Frequently, a series of
tests are administered, including an interest inventory, various aptitude tests,
personality questionnaire, and achievement tests. This information, along with
additional background information, is discussed with the student during a
series of counselling sessions
1. Prediction: Various types of tests are
given to individuals to obtain a solid basis upon which decisions can be made.
Decisions involve predictions of how well individuals will do later. It is
assumed that predictions based on quantitative data are more accurate and
reliable and provide a balance against wishful thinking.
2. Selection: Tests are also used in
selection of candidates for admission, jobs, or some training.
3. Classification: Tests are also used for
the purpose of classification of students. Classification means to divide
students into classes or groups based on some criteria. For example,
classifying students based on aptitude, interest, and mental abilities.
4. Evaluation: Tests are used to assess
and evaluate programme’s, methods, treatment and the like.
(i) Indifference, inattention, low
commitment and generally low motivation of the individuals tend to invalidate
the test results
(ii) The relative narrowness of the traits
measured by the tests
(iii) Low validity and reliability for some
pupils.
(iv) The unavailability of local norms
(v) Heavy weighting of vertical ability in
many tests
(vi) Undue influence of socio-cultural
conditions or environment conditions upon test results
(vii) Failure to follow the directions of the
tester
Intelligence, the dictionary says, is: “the capacity to acquire and
apply knowledge.”
D.WeschIer has given a comprehensive definition. According to him “Intelligence
is the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to
think rationally and to deal with his environment effectively.”
Intelligence has
been one of the most popular psychological terms used in identifying individual
differences. It has helped to explain that people differ from each other in
their ability to understand complex ideas or to learn from experience. Howard Gardener
‘s theory of multiple intelligences puts forth that intelligence is not a
single entity and there exists multiple intelligences, each distinct from
others. According to him, there are nine distinct bits of intelligence that are independent
of each other. These several types of intelligence interact and work together
to provide a solution to a problem. The nine types of intelligence proposed by
Gardener are briefly discussed below.
1. Linguistic Intelligence: The capacity
to use the language fluently and flexible, to express one ‘s thinking and
understanding others. Used in reading a book, writing a paper, a novel, or a
poem; and understanding spoken words. Poets and writers exhibit this ability.
2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:
Thinking logically, critically, using abstract reasoning to manipulate symbols
and solve mathematical problems.
3. Spatial Intelligence: Abilities
involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images. Used in getting
from one place to another, in reading a map, and is packing a suitcase in the
trunk of a car so that they all fit into a compact space. Pilots, sailors,
interior decorators, surgeons, fashion designers generally exhibit this ability.
4. Musical Intelligence: Capacity to
produce, create and manipulate musical patterns. Used in singing a song,
composing a sonata, playing the trumpet, or even appreciating the structure of a
piece of music.
5. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:
Ability to use one ‘s body and muscle structure in a coordinated planned way.
Used in dancing, playing basketball, running a mile, or throwing a javelin.
Athletes, dancers, actors, gymnasts, sports person, surgeon exhibit this more
than others.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence: Used in
relating to other people, such as when we try to understand another person ‘s behaviour behavior,
motives or emotions, counsellors, psychologists, politicians, social workers,
religious leaders are shown to be high on this ability.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: Knowledge
of one ‘s internal strengths and limitations and using that knowledge to relate
to others.
8. Naturalistic Intelligence: Complete
awareness of our relationship with the natural world, useful in recognizing the
the beauty of distinct species of flora and fauna and making a distinction in the
natural world.
9. Existential Intelligence: Can be
defined as the ability to be sensitive to, or have the capacity for,
conceptualizing or tackling deeper or larger questions about human existence,
such as the meaning of life, why are we born, why do you die, what is
consciousness or how did we get here.
The multiple
intelligence approach focuses on ways in which people can be intelligent.
As the meaning of
intelligence differs from one culture to another there is a need to understand
the cultural context for measuring intelligence. Even though tests of
intelligence assist counsellors and other personnel in providing a view of the client’s
abilities, the scores of these tests need to be used with caution.
In the words of
Prof. V.R Taneja “Measurement of Intelligence tells us differences
among individuals and those differences have practical importance in life, as
they are predictors of success in school, college and occupation. Test results
are used for educational and vocational guidance. Student can choose the
different stream of education like medicine. engineering, law, teaching etc.
depending upon their I.Q likewise, vocational choices can also be done based on
test results.”
To be specific
following are the uses of Intelligence tests:
- Allocation of students for different courses can be done based
on I.Q of students
- Selection of students for admission to schools in different
classes
- Classification of students as bright, superior, average, dull
etc. can be done based on intelligence tests
- Award of scholarships, honours. medals etc.
- Promotion of students to higher classes
- Prediction of academic success
- Understanding the causes of backwardness, delinquency, and
problematic behaviour
- For selection in Army, Police, Civil Services etc.
- For the purpose of educational and vocational guidance
- Used in Research
- For finding underachievers, slow learners etc.
Personality is the
sum of biological innate and acquired dispositions.
Personality‖ includes the emotional, motivational, interpersonal, attitudinal,
and even moral aspects of a person. some researchers have included intelligence
also as part of the personality. Personality refers to a unique combination of
characteristics of an individual, which predisposes the person to behave in a
particular and consistent way
Allport writes, “Personality is a dynamic organization within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine the unique adjustment to his
environment.”
In our daily
lives, we are constantly assessing people’s personalities in an informal way.
Personality testing is used to;
1)
helps the
students in proper educational and vocational choice
2)
helps the
individuals in resolving emotional conflicts
3)
helps the
teacher and the counsellor
4)
helps the
the employer in the proper selection of the personnel
5)
helps the
clinical psychologist to choose the best therapy for his patients.
Purposes of the Personality Test
. Personality testing is necessary to achieve the
following purposes.
It
helps the students in proper educational and vocational choice. It is, therefore,
important to diagnose the individual ‘s personality pattern to see whether he possess
the traits which are likely to contribute significantly to his adjustment to
the course or career he is choosing.
It
helps the individual in resolving emotional conflicts. Personality diagnosis
becomes essential when the difficulty the individual encounters in making
proper adjustment with the educational and occupational choices lies in
emotional conflict about which the client has no knowledge
A clinical psychologist
can use personality assessments to help choose the best therapy for his
clients.
Thus, personality assessment is important for
educational, career, personal and social counselling
A number of
techniques are used for testing personality. The techniques are:
Interview
Observation
Self-report Measures
Checklists
Rating Scales
Situational Tests or Behavioral Tests
Projective Techniques
Anecdotal Records
Autobiography
The Daily Diary
:
1. The Interview:
An interview is a conversation during which an interviewer seeks to elicit
information about another person and to evaluate him in general terms. The
the interview has certain advantages:
(a) it ensures that essential topics will be
covered
(b) It is easier to compare interviews when
all interviewers have covered the same topics.
2. Observation:
observation is one of the finest and easiest techniques for testing
personality.
Direct observation as a technique of personality testing is useful in many ways:
(i) The observer sees the person’s behaviour
at first hand and does not have to rely on the person’s own description.
(ii) If several careful observers provide unbiased,
factual accounts of a person’s behaviour over a period, the composite picture of
the individual’s personality can be quite accurate.
3. Self-ratings and Personality
Inventories
An individual has
written account of the past behaviour, feelings and wishes can be a reliable
source of information about his personality. Self-ratings can be done through
personality inventories and paper & pencil tests both of which serve as
an excellent basis for later interviews.
4. Checklists
In a checklist the
the subject must check items which are applicable to him Given below are some Checklists:
(i) Student’s Problem Checklist
(ii) Money Problem Checklist
5. Rating Scales
Rating is a sample
of the ‘reputation’ of the subject in the eyes of the raters - counsellors,
teachers, parents, or others. A rater can record judgements of another person
or of himself upon the traits defined by the scale by a device. It is usually
being based on a scale of 0-5 or extremely poor to excellent. It covers a much
wider range of more natural behaviour than any practicable battery of
personality tests. It has a great advantage of being applicable without taking
up the time of the subjects, even without their knowing anything about it. A
number of rating techniques are available
Projective Techniques
Projective
techniques enable a subject to project his internal feelings- attitudes, needs,
values, or wishes to an external object. They aim at getting at the core rather
then the circumference of the personality structure, are concerned with complex
mental processes, and portray the complete personality.
The following are
some of the major projective techniques:
1. Free word association
2. Word Connection
3. Completion Test
4. Rozenweig picture-frustration study
5. Drawing Painting and Sculpture
6. Play
7. Rorschach Ink-blot test
8. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
9. The Children Apperception Test (CAT)
7. Situational
or Behavioral Tests
This is a test in
which the behaviour of the individual is evaluated in action by judges or by his
peers or he is confronted with the situations related to his own life, in
response to which he gives expression to his feelings for other persons. The
subject reveals some of his personality traits through his preference for or
against certain contacts with others and through his spontaneous methods of
dealing with life-situations that confront him.
8. Anecdotal Records
This is also a
a promising approach to the investigation of pupil personality. An anecdotal record
is a description of the student’s conduct and personality in terms of frequent,
brief, concrete observations of the student made and recorded by the teacher, counsellor,
or administrator. If these observations are summarized chronologically, a fair
account of the personality of the student can be built up. It gives a dynamic
picture of the student in diverse situations and this is a good device for the
assessment of personality.
9. Autobiography
It is a personal
and comprehensive document of an individual, which can prove useful in
obtaining information about his personality dynamics. This device can be used
more for gaining an understanding of a student’s ‘inner world ‘than for
ascertaining the facts regarding the ‘outer world. A proper interpretation of
autobiography, thus, will give an insight into the personality of the
individual.
10. The Daily Diary
The daily diary
kept by students can also serve as a good device for a measure of personality.
The diary is very personal can contain the record of such events, thoughts,
and feelings as are of great importance to the student. If kept and made
available
to the counsellor
and used by him in confidence, the diary can serve as a useful medium of
throwing light upon many aspects of the personality of the individual
The difficulties
encountered in personality testing are the subject’s reluctance to disclose
sensitive information. An individual’s personality reflects his characteristic behaviour
traits and the way he consistently reacts to his environment. In assessing personality,
we are not interested in a person’s best behaviour but want to find out his
typical behaviour in ordinary situations. We occasionally alter our behaviour
patterns in times of illness, personal misfortune, or family troubles. But most
of us also want to appear at our best before others. A person who is being
questioned about his personality may be reluctant to disclose information that
will show in an unfavourable light. Any measurement of personality, therefore,
must consider the possibility that the person being assessed may not be
displaying his characteristic way of behaving.
Aptitude is
thought of as a natural tendency, special ability, or capacity or cluster of
abilities. Often these natural abilities are looked at in relationship to a
person’s readiness to learn or their suitability for a career. For example, to
be successful architect, one must possess the cluster of abilities such as a
keen sense of observation, a sense of aesthetic visual memory, abstract
reasoning, and an ability to sketch free hand. So, aptitude may be defined as a
trait that characterizes an individual’s ability to perform in an area or to
acquire the learning necessary for performance in each area. It presumes an
inherent or native ability that can be developed to its maximum through
learning or other experiences. However, it cannot be expanded beyond a
certain point, even by learning. an aptitude test measures the potential of one
to achieve in a given activity or to learn to achieve in that activity.
According to
Traxler “Aptitude is a present condition which is
indicative of an individual’s potentialities for the future.”
In the words of Bingham
“Aptitude is a condition or set of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of
an individual’s ability to acquire with training some usually specified
knowledge, skill or set of responses, such as the ability to speak the language, to
produce music.”
Bingham states
that the concept of aptitude rests upon three assumptions:
1)
An individual’s
potentialities are not equally strong
2)
Individuals
differ from one another in their potentialities
3)
Many of
these differences are stable
- An aptitude is a unique combination of abilities and
personality characteristics, which predisposes a person to do one kind of
work better than another and increases his chances of success at it.
- An aptitude, therefore, is not a unitary trait of human
personality. For example, aptitude for science involves basic intellectual
qualities like logical reasoning, abstract reasoning, arithmetical reasoning,
certain temperamental qualities like an interest in experimentation and
initiative for invention, personality characteristics like persistence and
hard work.
- An aptitude is acquired, though in many cases it has an innate
basis.
The measurement
of aptitudes for specific vocational pursuits becomes a complicated process, as
there are thousands of occupations.
Among the tests
available, the following category of tests is often used:
1. Art Aptitude Test
2. Clerical Aptitude Test
3. Manual Aptitude Test
4. Mechanical Aptitude Test
5. Medical Aptitude Test
6. Musical Aptitude Test
7. Scholarly Aptitude Test
8. Scientific Aptitude Test
9. Teachers Aptitude Test
Aptitude
tests may potentially be used by counsellors and others because.
i.
These are
used for purpose of guidance in selecting subjects for studying, for use to
help the students to select the profession or occupation of his choice.
ii.
Employers
can use it for making a selection of his employees.
iii.
Different
aptitude tests can be used in admitting candidates for different professional
training such as Law, Medicine, Engineering etc.
iv.
They may
identify potential abilities of which the individual is not aware; \
v.
They may
encourage the development of special or potential abilities of a given
individual.
vi.
They may
provide information to assist the individual in making educational and career decisions
or other choices between competing alternatives;
vii.
They may
serve as an aid in predicting the level of academic or vocational success on
an individual might anticipate; and
viii.
They may
be useful in grouping individuals with similar aptitudes for development and
other educational purposes.
There are distinct
types of aptitude tests.
Some of them are single aptitude tests like
tests of mechanical aptitude, clerical aptitude, teaching aptitude, musical
aptitude and so on. Such tests covering a group of related abilities are
necessary for performing in an occupation like becoming a mechanic, clerk,
teacher, musician etc.
Another type of
aptitude test is the work sample aptitude test. It requires the individual to
perform all or part of a given job under the conditions that exist on the job.
An example of a
work sample test for the job of an automobile mechanic is to repair a faulty
carburettor. Besides this, there are differential tests Batteries as well.
Differential
Aptitude Tests (DAT)
A commonly known
Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT). Bennett, Seashore and Wesman (1984) battery
consist of eight subtests of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning abstract
reasoning, spatial reasoning, clerical speed and accuracy, mechanical
reasoning, language usage, spelling, grammar, a combination of such abilities is
required for success in different occupations. Such test batteries can give
comprehensive information about the relative picture of the student’s specific
abilities. Administration of total battery can prove to be costly in terms of time,
but one can make selective use of certain subtests.
For example, a student trying to explore
whether s/he will have the required aptitude to go to engineering, may not be
required to take tests like clerical speed, language usage, grammatical or
verbal reasoning tests but may be required to take numerical abstract and
spatial reasoning tests. Most of the batteries of tests available for
assessment of aptitude at school stage is in the form of test batteries
consisting of the underlying abilities required for success in different
occupations rather than the direct assessment of job aptitudes.
It is
important that counsellors select and use aptitude tests carefully, keeping in
view the student’s/client’s needs. If aptitude test data must be used, it
should be used along with previous achievement data, present interests, leisure
time activities and work habits etc. to guide the students into various
occupational possibilities.
The
aptitude test samples certain abilities of the individual and helps to find what
he/she can do now and how well it can be done further. Based on the present
performance,
estimate of
his/her future achievement is inferred which is in terms of probability only.
It may
also, be kept in mind that aptitude tests score only provide leads or
suggestions or to help in career planning and do not automatically match
individuals to suitable courses or studies, and occupations. These are factors
like willingness, hard work, that contribute to or one has success in a career
which are not measured by aptitude tests.
Achievement is what one successfully accomplishes in an area of
study/activity/ domain. In the case of students, it may be conceptualized as
successful learning of the assigned educational material. Such learning is
usually demonstrated to teachers and others either through a verbal
presentation or a written examination.
An achievement test measures knowledge and skills attained by the
student in a particular area usually acquired after classroom teaching or
training. In an educational system, achievement test scores are often used to
determine the level of instruction for which a student is prepared, to indicate
academic strengths and weakness, and to indicate the relative standing of the
student in a group/class. Achievement test data, in combination with other
data, is used to help guidance counsellors plan students future educational programme’s.
Types of Achievement Test:
Achievement tests are of various kinds, each scoring a different
purpose and providing different information on students ‘academic proficiency.
These have been classified in many ways and understanding of which helps the
counsellor to understand their functions.
Formative and Summative Tests: Formative
tests are used to measure progress made in knowledge and skills before and
during instruction. Summative achievement tests are given at the end of course
instruction, to assess the outcome of the instruction.
Prognostic tests: Readiness or prognostic
tests are used to predict how well an individual is expected to profit from
training.
Diagnostic Test: Diagnostic achievement tests
provide information on the performance of the students in different subjects and
